OrbitalHub

A NASA SmallSat called Pandora finished its commissioning campaign in mid-August and started routine science observations this week, becoming the first spacecraft ever launched under NASA's Astrophysics Pioneers program to begin returning data. The mission's job is unglamorous and foundational: stare at known transiting exoplanets for 24 hours at a time, in visible and near-infrared light together, and work out how much of the signal that astronomers have been calling "the planet's atmosphere" is actually the star's surface talking back. Over its year-long primary mission, Pandora will repeat that pattern at least 10 times each on at least 20 different worlds (NASA Science, Aug 25, 2026).

Pandora is not a flagship-class observatory. It is a 45-centimeter telescope in a small-satellite bus, launched on January 11, 2026, with a cost cap closer to a university instrument than to a NASA great observatory. The trade is that the mission gives up raw sensitivity and trades it for time: it can spend full days on a single target, something James Webb Space Telescope, Hubble, or any of the other big telescopes simply cannot afford to do, because their schedules are filled with hundreds of competing requests (NASA Science mission page).

Transit spectroscopy is the dominant way the field measures exoplanet atmospheres today. When a planet crosses in front of its star, a thin sliver of starlight passes through the planet's atmosphere on its way to Earth, and the wavelength-by-wavelength absorption of that light is supposed to encode the composition of the atmosphere. Water, methane, carbon dioxide, hazes and clouds all leave fingerprints at characteristic wavelengths, and a community of thousands of papers since 2002 has built up an enormous catalog of "detected" molecules on this premise.

The premise has a quiet problem. Stars are not uniform disks. Their surfaces host hotter, brighter patches called faculae and cooler, darker patches analogous to sunspots, and those patches grow, shrink, and rotate across the star's face on timescales of hours to weeks. When the planet transits, the starlight that grazes the planet's atmosphere is the light coming from the exact patch of the star covered by the planet at that moment. If that patch happens to be a facula, the recorded spectrum is biased bright; if it is a starspot, the spectrum is biased dark. Both biases can mimic or erase molecular features that the atmosphere alone would have produced.

This contamination problem has been written about for years, most concretely in a 2018 paper by Benjamin Rackham (then at Harvard, now at MIT) and Daniel Apai, which showed that starspot and facula crossings could fake the entire water feature in an Earth-sized planet's transit spectrum, with the implication that several claimed habitable-zone water detections needed re-evaluation (NASA Science, Aug 25, 2026). Rackham is now on the Pandora team. The mission is, in a real sense, a purpose-built response to the contamination question his paper raised. That response has implications for how the next decade of Webb and Ariel spectra should be interpreted.

Pandora is the first mission under NASA's Astrophysics Pioneers program, a line that NASA created in 2020 to fund astrophysics SmallSats at roughly $20 million each, with a higher-than-usual tolerance for risk. Pioneers missions are meant to answer focused scientific questions with focused instruments, on short timelines and modest budgets, and to give early-career principal investigators a path to flying a mission. Pandora was selected in the inaugural 2021 call (NASA Science mission page).

The principal investigator is Elisa Quintana at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, with project management and engineering at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The telescope itself was a joint development between Livermore and Corning Incorporated: an all-aluminum 18-inch (45 cm) primary, chosen for its thermal stability over a long stare. The detectors are the heart of the instrument, and the near-infrared one is a Teledyne HxRG part originally built and qualified as a flight spare for the James Webb Space Telescope (NASA Science, Aug 25, 2026). The bus was built by Blue Canyon Technologies, which also handled spacecraft assembly, integration, and environmental testing, and which provides ongoing mission operations support. The University of Arizona leads mission operations, and NASA's Ames Research Center performs the data processing.

Pandora launched on January 11, 2026, into low Earth orbit. The commissioning campaign that followed took roughly seven months, longer than the four-to-six months NASA's SmallSat missions often need, mostly because of the precision pointing required to hold the telescope on a star and not drift during a 24-hour exposure. By mid-August, deputy project manager Jordan Karburn of Lawrence Livermore was ready to call it: the spacecraft is healthy and all the instruments are performing as well as the team had hoped. Routine science observations began on August 25, 2026 (NASA Science, Aug 25, 2026).

The instrument's central trick is the simultaneous visible and near-infrared stare. When Pandora points at a star that is hosting a transit, both detectors record photons at the same time. The visible detector measures the brightness of the star across the stellar surface, including the changing pattern of spots and faculae as the star rotates. The near-infrared detector measures the transit spectrum itself, where the planet's atmospheric absorption lives.

To turn those two measurements into a contamination-free planet spectrum, the team uses the pattern of brightening and dimming in the visible band to model what the star was doing during the transit in the infrared. They subtract the inferred stellar component from the observed infrared spectrum, leaving the planet's absorption as the residual. That is the same general technique the field has applied to individual Hubble and Spitzer observations, but applied across a whole program at a depth and time coverage those missions could never match.

The visible detector alone does not give you a clean stellar surface map, because the planet is also blocking part of the star during the transit. Pandora solves that by spending 24 hours on each target, with the transit landing somewhere inside that window. The 20 hours outside the transit capture the stellar rotation signature cleanly, and the 4-hour transit window captures the planet's absorption while the stellar pattern is still being monitored in the visible.

The 20-target, 10-observation, 24-hour-stare program is calibrated against a smaller list of well-characterized exoplanet host stars that other observatories have already studied in detail. The plan is that Pandora will first nail down the stellar contamination correction on those targets, where independent Webb and Hubble spectra exist for cross-checking, and then apply the validated correction to more challenging targets further out.

The Pandora team's claim, made by project scientist Knicole Colón at NASA Goddard, is that combining Pandora's many-hour stares with shorter Webb snapshots will give the community the first set of planet spectra that are demonstrably free of the starspot/facula confusion that has plagued the field. That is a specific, testable claim, and the year-long primary mission is sized to deliver it (NASA Science, Aug 25, 2026).

Pandora is a quiet mission by NASA's standards, and that is the point. The Astrophysics Pioneers line was created to fund focused science that flagship missions cannot deliver, on the argument that some questions need dozens of hours per target rather than a single snapshot. Pandora's question is the one that underlies every transit-spectroscopy result published since 2002: how much of what we attribute to a planet's atmosphere is actually the star's surface?

The mission is now collecting data. The first peer-reviewed results are likely to land in late 2027 or early 2028, when the team has had time to reduce the first 12 to 18 months of stares and compare them against the existing Webb and Hubble baseline. If the contamination correction works as advertised on the well-characterized stars first, the team will extend the technique to the more interesting targets, including small cool stars whose habitable zones fall in the Sweet Spot for atmospheric characterization.

The broader programmatic test is whether Pioneers as a line can deliver the science per dollar that the 2020 decadal review committee hoped for. Pandora is the first example the field will judge.

Abstract

The blogpost explores relativistic effects on proof-of-work based cryptocurrency protocols. Cryptocurrencies are here to stay and it is quite plausible that future human colonists spread across the solar system and beyond will use a decentralized cryptocurrency as opposed to a fiat currency issued by a central authority. The low transaction fees, the ubiquitous access, not being bound by exchange rates or interest rates, not being controlled by financial institutions who are serving foreign interests -- these are some of the advantages cryptocurrencies will enjoy in the thriving exo-economy.

Motivation

At present, on a cryptocurrency network, the information exchanged by the nodes in the network reaches each node almost instantaneously. The speed at which the TCP/IP packets travel on the network and the fact that the Internet spans only the Earth and the LEO makes this possible. However, once the region the network is spread across will reach certain boundaries, the network size would have negative impact on the network: increasing communication failures due to network delays, more frequent and longer blockchain forks as part of the proof-of-work protocol, network segregation into local sub-networks (let us call them topological forks), just to name a few.

Nullius in verba... as they say. Let's go deeper into details and figure out a feasible solution for a truly interplanetary cryptocurrency.

Cryptocurrency 101

You can think of a cryptocurrency as a digital money ecosystem. Plain and simple. A collection of technologies are part of this ecosystem, all of them the result of years of research in the cryptography and distributed systems fields: a decentralized network of computers, a public transaction ledger -- also known as a blockchain, a protocol that consists of a set of rules for transaction validation, a decentralized consensus mechanism. [ANTO]

A decentralized network of computers ensures the resilience of the network. We can think of both computing power and data storage capabilities. As the computing power is distributed across the network, any disruption can be successfully handled by the network. Transaction data resides on all nodes of the network. This implies that even physical damage done to network nodes will not take out the network.

The blockchain is a public distributed ledger which stores all transactions handled by the network. As the name suggests, the blockchain is a list of data blocks. Each of these blocks contains a set of transactions, as many as can fit in the block, given the maximum size of the block (a characteristic of the network). Transactions contain sender and receiver info, and the amount/asset that is changing ownership, and they are broadcasted and added to blocks by network nodes. Blocks are linked to the previous block in the chain by a cryptographic hash (the hash of the previous block becomes part of the current block). This backward link leads all the way to the first block in the chain, the Genesis block. Each cryptocurrency blockchain has one. The cryptographic hashes have an important role in protecting the blockchain from tampering attempts.

The transaction validation rules enforced by the nodes in the network ensure that the content of each block in the blockchain is valid. By far, the most frequent form of fraud is double spending. The validation process makes sure that the inputs on the transactions exist and that they have not been already spent. The transactions marked as invalid are rejected by the network and do not make it on the blockchain.

The consensus mechanism is designed so that all the nodes in the network can agree on the set of transactions to be included in the current block. It shifts the authority and the credibility required by a central clearing house to a network of nodes. Important to mention here that, inherently, the nodes do not trust each other, and they do not have to because the trust is enforced by the consensus mechanism itself.

The Proof-of-Work

We mentioned above that one of the key innovations that make cryptocurrencies possible is the decentralized consensus mechanism. Currently, the de facto consensus mechanism is the proof-of-work.

The proof-of-work consensus mechanism was proposed by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008 [NAKA]. In general, a proof-of-work is a piece of data that requires costly and time consuming computational effort, but it is very easy to verify. A very good analogy is one of your semester projects in college... it takes you a whole semester to finalize it, but it takes very little time and effort for your supervisor to evaluate and grade it. Similarly, proof-of-work is used by cryptocurrencies for block generation. For the network to accept the block, nodes must complete a proof-of-work which also guarantees the integrity of the transactions included in the block. The difficulty of the proof-of-work is adjusted by the network so that a new block can be generated every fixed time interval. This fixed time interval is characteristic to every cryptocurrency. Most notably, for Bitcoin this time interval is set to 10 minutes.

Satoshi Nakamoto's solution, emobodied by the proof-of-work algorithm above, achieves consensus on the network without a central trusted authority (hence the name decentralized consensus mechanism).

Enter the Ansible

For the astute reader, it is quite obvious at this point that communication delays between the network nodes have a direct effect on the protocol described above. An important assumption made when the protocol was designed is that these delays are small, and this is why they can be handled by the network when the nodes choose to follow and validate the blocks on the longest blockchain fork. Also, this is the reason why all the nodes in the network can have a say in the network consensus. They all can find a solution for the current block, and they all can be rewarded when they find the solution. The communication delays witnessed by the peripheral nodes will cripple their ability to find solutions and these nodes will not be incentivized to remain in the network. Hence, the segregation of the network effect mentioned earlier.

Unfortunately, given the current technological level of our civilization, we do not have at our disposal a technology that allows us to communicate fast and reliable over the large expanse of space. It would take a hell of a wait time to proces a payment made by a mining corporation in the TRAPPIST-1 system, 12 parsecs within the constellation of Aquarius, to a planetary engineering corporation located in the Sol system... twice 39 years plus the block confirmation time.

Fortunately, the Sci-Fi literature already offers a solution for our problem. For those of you, Sci-Fi nerds like myself, that have already read Rocannon's World [LEGU] and Ender's Game [CARD], the Ansible device must sound very familiar. The ansible is a fictional device capable of faster-than-light communication. To word this differently, an operator of such device can send and receive messages to and from another device over any distance with no delay.

Hence, even if only in the realm of science fiction, we will be able to devise a solution for the problem that the future cryptocurrency enthusiasts, living in the outer space colonies, will eventually face.

The Special Relativity Theorem

Before elaborating more on a required upgrade of the network protocol, we have to discuss the special relativity theorem and its implications on how time and distance are perceived in reference systems.

Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. He received it for his contributions to the understanding of the photoelectric effect, after publishing a paper on it in 1905. At that point his contributions to the understanding of gravity through his theory of relativity were well known, but the new perspective on gravity offered by Einstein's theory was so controversial that the Nobel Prize Committee members chose to protect their reputation. They decided that it was appropriate to award Einstein the Nobel Prize for "his services to theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect."

During his research Einstein attempted to reconcile the principle of relativity with the principle of the constancy of the velocity of light. This attempt led Einstein to the discovery of the special relativity theorem. Einstein's Gedankenexperiment (thought experiment) with a test subject travelling by train is very well known in the scientific community. If our human subject is walking towards the front of the train with velocity w with respect to the train, and the train is moving with velocity v with respect to the embankment, then an observer on the embankment will measure as W = v + w the velocity of our subject on the train. If instead of our traveller, we consider a beam of light propagating with velocity c, the velocity measured by the observer on the embarkment would be v + c. However, this violates the principle that the velocity of light is constant in any inertial reference system and equal with c. Einstein found a solution for this problem and thus resolved the incompatibility.

One direct consequence of the special relativity theorem is the Lorentz transformation.

Before the relativity theorem, time in physics had an absolute significance, independent of the state of motion of the reference system. However, every inertial reference system has its own particular time. We always have to be told which inertial reference system the statement of time refers to. If you look at your watch, the time you read is the time as measured in the Earth inertial reference system. By the way, the Earth circles the Sun on an almost circular orbit, which means that any body maintaining a constant position in the Earth reference system should experience some centripetal force. However, this centripetal component is negligible compared to the gravitational pull of the Earth. Hence, engineers use this aproximation when calculating satellite orbits.

Back to our original trail of thoughts... the axiom that lays the foundation for the Lorentz transformation states that every ray of light possesses the velocity of transmission c relative to any inertial reference system. That is the velocity of transmission in vacuo (in a vacuum).

If following Einstein's thought experiments [EINS], the above-mentioned axiom leads to a set of four equations that explain the relation between dimensional and temporal coordinates in two inertial reference systems:

  x' = (x - vt)/sqr(1 - v²/c²)
  y' = y
  z' = z
  t' = (t - x*v/c²)/sqr(1 - v²/c²)

where:

 x, y, z, t coordinates in inertial reference system K,
 x', y', z' , t' coordinates in inertial reference system K',
 v the relative velocity between inertial reference systems;

also, the expression 1//sqr(1 - v²/c²) is known as the Lorentz factor.

The Lorentz transformation equations are a more general case of the Galilean transformation:

  x' = x - vt
  y' = y
  z' = z
  t' = t

which is the basis of the assumptions of the classical mechanics as to the absolute character of both dimensional and temporal coordinates. The above are the result of replacing velocity c with ∞ in the Lorentz transformation equations.

The Lorentz transformation has a few corollaries which have an impact on time dilation, length contraction, relativistic mass, relativistic momentum, and relativistic kinetic energy. The one that concerns us is the time dilation corollary:

 Δt = γΔt'
 
where γ is defined by

 α = 1/γ = sqr(1 - v²/c²)

Assuming a clock at rest in inertial reference system K, and moving with the velocity v in the inertial reference system K', the time Δt' between two ticks as measured in the frame K' is longer than the time Δt between the same ticks as measured in the rest frame of the clock, K.

Relativistic Effects on Proof-of-Work

To better understand the relativistic effects on how relative time is perceived in two inertial reference systems (or Galilean reference systems [EINS]) we have to mention the twin paradox. The twin paradox is a thought experiment that involves two identical twins. One of the twins makes a journey into space onboard a relativistic spaceship, and upon his return to Earth discovers that his twin has aged much more than he did. Depending on how fast the spaceship moves through space and/or how long the journey was, our traveller could return to Earth and realize that several generations have passed meanwhile.

As a direct application of the twin paradox, we have Mazer Rackham, International Fleet Admiral and Ender Wiggin's mentor, as portrayed by Orson Scott Card [CARD]. The fighter pilot who destroyed the Formic Fleet Flagship, killed the Hive Queen, and ended the Second Formic Invasion, Mazer Rackham is sent on a journey on a relativistic spaceship and returns to Earth 100 years later in order to assist the International Fleet. Upon his return he has barely aged a few years.

Similarly, if a subnetwork is moving relative to the rest of the network, the nodes in the subnetwork would experience time dilation as predicted by the special relativity theorem. Hence, they are at a disadvantage compared to the rest of the nodes because they have less time available to find a solution for the proof-of-work problem. In order to make thing square for all the nodes in the network, the difficulty of the problem should be adjusted in each subnetwork using the Lorentz factor: in order to compensate for time dilation, the relativistic nodes should have to solve a simpler problem. Also, their block confirmation time should decrease as well.

One element is missing still... how do ansibles synchronize? What value has the Lorentz factor for each one of them? One simple solution for this problem is having one of the ansibles (let us say the Earth-bound one) broadcasting a beacon every fixed number of seconds. The ansibles interfacing to subnetworks would pick up the broadcast, and by measuring the time interval between the beacons, infer the Lorentz factor. Once the Lorentz factor is determined, the nodes mining on the subnetworks will have their proof-of-work difficulty and the block confirmation time adjusted accordingly.

A more Down-to-Earth Solution for the Problem

We will fork the storyline (pun intended) at Enter the Ansible paragraph, and suggest a more down-to-earth solution for the problem. The peripheral nodes are not to participate in the consensus. Their function would be just to relay messages (a.k.a. payment information) across the network. In our multi-planetary scenario, the nodes working on the proof-of-work would reside on/around the Earth, and the network nodes on Mars or any other region in the Sol system would have to wait 2x (network packets travel time) + (block confirmation time) in order to confirm a payment. However, such a solution would have an Achilles heel very hard to defend... if starting its mining engine, any peripheral node could take over the local network and force a topological fork of the network. For a node, the incentive of staying honest on the current network must be stronger than any reward obtained by cheating.

Concluding remarks

While the blogpost contains some elements of fiction, it accurately describes the cryptocurrency ecosystem, the special relativity theorem, the Lorentz transformation and its corollaries. We would like to thank the readers that went through this exercise with us. Undeniably, cryptocurrencies are disrupting the global economy and they are here to stay. Undeniably, we -- as a species -- will explore and migrate farther than the LEO. History has taught us that decentralization is the key to survival and prosperity. Let us together make the future happen.

References

[ANTO] Antonopoulos, Andreas M., Mastering Bitcoin, Second Edition, O'Reilly Media, Inc., June 2017;
[CARD] Card, Orson Scott, Ender's Game, A Tor Teen Book, 2014;
[EINS] Einstein, Albert, Relativity, The Special and the General Theory, Princeton University Press, 2015;
[LEGU] Le Guin, Ursula K., Rocannon's World, Harper & Row, 1977;
[NAKA] Nakamoto, Satoshi, Bitcoin - A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System, www.bitcoin.org, 2008;